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“Neither ‘Islam’ nor ‘Muslim’ is a Race”: Islamophobia, Racism and Freedom of Expression

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 49, 595 - 625, 30.04.2023
https://doi.org/10.28949/bilimname.1228143

Öz

There are objections to the definition of Islamophobia as a form of racism. Objections center around two main themes of Islamophobia: “Islam” and “Muslims”. Some detractors argue that the former should not be given protection against various debates and criticisms that should be considered legitimate within the scope of freedom of expression. They assert that statements such as “Muhammad is a pedophile and married a nine-year-old girl”, “Islam was spread by the sword” or “Wearing the veil dehumanizes, humiliates and objectifies women” should be considered as theological debates that should be seen as legitimate within the scope of freedom of expression and that these rights of criticism should not be restricted by defining Islamophobia as a form of racism. For others, the latter cannot be considered a racial minority because being a Muslim is a religious identity that is seen as being voluntarily chosen. While this approach regards gender and racial identities as innate or involuntary identity categories, it assumes that being a Muslim is related to one's own will and therefore Muslims need or should have much less legal protection than these other identity categories. This paper argues that definitions other than racism would miss a vital issue, one that helps capture and understand how Muslims and those who are simply perceived as being Muslim are excluded, subordinated, and exploited with reference to phenotypical and cultural differences. This is the issue of racialization of Muslims. This study aims to explore the following questions: What should be the legal limit of freedom of expression? Is it possible to distinguish Islamophobia from reasonable criticism of Muslims and Islam? Does racism really depend on the actual existence of races? If the hostility to Islam and Muslims can be regarded as a form of racism, then, what kind of racism might it be? What are its specific qualities, how does it function? How have Muslims been racialized? To answer these questions, this paper draws on a study of Islamophobia experiences of thirty-nine first and second-generation young Turks aged between 18-35 in London in 2019. I aimed to recruit respondents that were diverse enough to represent the variation known to exist in the Turkish community of London. I selected the semi-structured in-depth interview method as the means by which the data would be collected. I employed thematic analysis to identify and analyse patterns of meaning in the dataset. This study has made clear that Muslims are racialized not based on biological or phenotypical features, but also ethnic and cultural features. I argue that making sweeping generalizations is more likely to be Islamophobic. One should have the right to critique ideologies and religions, but the manner and decorum in which individuals express themselves are vital. The speech should not intentionally demonize a religion, or humiliate, devalue, or stigmatize a diverse group of people. Moreover, being Muslim is not a racial identity reflects the idea that race is the pre-condition for racism and confines racism to a narrow understanding. Every racism, whether biological or cultural, is cultural in its essence and the main target is cultural, social, and religious differences attributed to bodies (individuals). Therefore, perceived religious affiliation rather than religion itself is at the center of anti-Muslim racism. Regardless of physical appearance, nationality, ethnicity, or economic situation, Muslims are homogenized, humiliated, and marginalized through Islamophobic discourse and practices in their daily lives. This article contributes to a better understanding of why Islamophobia should be evaluated as a form of racism. It is hoped that in assessing the discourse and behavior towards Islam and Muslims, the focus will be shifted from everyday political debate or hostility to religion, fear of religion, anti-Muslim hatred, and prejudice to the fact that Muslims are racialized.

Destekleyen Kurum

The Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education

Teşekkür

I would like to thank the Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education for the financial support that made this research possible. I am also indebted to Professor Tariq Modood for his constructive feedback, and invaluable advice on this paper.

Kaynakça

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  • AHLUWALIA, Muninder K. - Pellettiere, Laura. “Sikh men post-9/11: Misidentification, discrimination, and coping.” Asian American Journal of Psychology 1/4 (2010), 303-314.
  • ALEXANDER, Claire. “Raceing Islamophobia”. Islamophobia: Still a challenge for us all. ed. Farah Elahi - Omar Khan. 13-15. Runnymede Trust, 2017. https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Islamophobia%20Report%202018%20FINAL.pdf.
  • All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims (APPGM). Islamophobia Defined. Report On The İnquiry İnto A Working Definition of Islamophobia/Anti-Muslim Hatred (2018). https://appgbritishmuslims.org/publications/
  • BALIBAR, Etienne. “Is There a ‘Neo-Racism’?” Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. London: Verso, 1991.
  • BANTON, Michael. Racial and ethnic competition. CUP Archive, 1983.
  • BARKER, Martin. The new racism: Conservatives and the ideology of the tribe. Junction Books, 1981.
  • BBC One. “The Big Questions: Nicky Campbell will be asking: Should Britain be ashamed of its deportation policies? And, will defining Islamophobia undermine free speech?”. 16 Feb 2020. https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m000fk1f/the-big-questions-series-13-episode-3.
  • BRAUN, Virginia – Victoria Clarke. “Using thematic analysis in psychology”. Qualitative research in psychology 3/2 (2006), 77-101.
  • BRODKIN, Karen. How Jews became white folks and what that says about race in America. NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998.
  • BUNZL, Matti. “Between anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Some thoughts on the new Europe”. American Ethnologist 32/4 (2005).
  • Christian Concern. “Open letter to Home Secretary rejects Islamophobia definition” (17 May 2019). https://christianconcern.com/ccpressreleases/open-letter-to-home-secretary-rejects-islamophobia-definition/
  • COHEN, Philip. “Gefährliche Erbschaften: Studien zur Entstehung einer multirassistischen Kultur in Großbritannien”. Die Schwierigkeit, nicht rassistisch zu sein. ed. Anita Kalpaka - Nora Räthzel. 81-144. Leer: Mundo, 1990.
  • DAWKINS, Richard vd. The Four Horsemen: The Discussion that Sparked an Atheist Revolution Foreword by Stephen Fry. Random House, 2019.
  • EVANS, Stephen. “Islam, like any other religion, must be fair game for criticism” (22 August 2019). https://www.secularism.org.uk/opinion/2019/08/islam-like-any-other-religion-must-be-fair-game-for-criticism.
  • FANON, Frantz. Black skin, white masks. New York: Grove Press, 1967.
  • FENTON, Steve. Ethnicity: Racism, class and culture. London: MacMillan Press, 1999. FOX, Jon E. “The uses of racism: whitewashing new Europeans in the UK”. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36/11 (2013), 1871-1889.
  • FOX, Jon E. - Mogilnicka, Magda. “Pathological integration, or, how East Europeans use racism to become British”. The British Journal of Sociology 70/1 (2019), 5-23.
  • FREDRICKSON, George M. Racism: A Short History. Princeton University Press: Princeton and Oxford, 2002.
  • FUKUYAMA, Francis. “The end of history?” The national interest 16 (1989), 3-18.
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  • GARNER, Steve - Selod, Saher. “The racialization of Muslims: Empirical studies of Islamophobia”. Critical Sociology 41/1 (2015), 9-19.
  • GILEWICZ, Magdalena. The construction of Muslim community and British Muslim identity in two British Muslim newspapers. University of Aberdeen, PhD Thesis, 2012.
  • GRAY, Anthony. “Racial vilification and freedom of speech in Australia and elsewhere”. Common Law World Review 41/2 (2012), 167-195.
  • GROSFOGUEL, Ramon - Mielants, Eric. “The long-duree entanglement between islamophobia and racism in the modern/colonial capitalist/patriarchal world-system”. Human Architecture: Journal of the sociology of self-knowledge 1/Fall (2006), 1-12.
  • HALLIDAY, Fred. “’Islamophobia’reconsidered”. Ethnic and Racial Studies 22/5 (1999), 892-902.
  • HUNTINGTON, Samuel P. “The clash of civilizations”. Foreign Affairs 72/3 (1993), 22-49.
  • HUNTINGTON, Samuel P. Who are we?: The challenges to America’s national identity. Simon and Schuster, 2004.
  • IGNATIEV, Noel. How the Irish became white. London: Harvard University, 1995.
  • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. “Article 19”. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx
  • ITV News. “Government rejects controversial definition of Islamophobia after warning from terror police” (15 May 2019). https://www.itv.com/news/2019-05-15/police-counter-terror-chief-joins-row-over-islamophobia-definition/
  • KUNST, Jonas R. vd. “Coping with Islamophobia: The effects of religious stigma on Muslim minorities’ identity formation”. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 36/4 (2012), 518-532.
  • LAJEVARDI, Nazita - Oskooii, Kassra AR. “Old-fashioned racism, contemporary islamophobia, and the isolation of Muslim Americans in the age of Trump”. Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 3/1 (2018), 112-152.
  • LEWIS, Bernard. Islam and the West, 1993.
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  • MEER, Nasar. “The politics of voluntary and involuntary identities: are Muslims in Britain an ethnic, racial or religious minority?” Patterns of prejudice 42/1 (2008), 61-81.
  • MEER, Nasar - Modood, Tariq. “For ‘Jewish’ read ‘Muslim’? Islamophobia as a form of racialisation of ethno-religious groups in Britain today”. Islamophobia Studies Journal 1/1 (2012), 34-53.
  • MEER, Nasar - Modood, Tariq. “Refutations of racism in the ‘Muslim question’”. Patterns of prejudice 43/3-4 (2009), 335-354.
  • MEER, Nasar - Noorani, Tehseen. “A sociological comparison of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in Britain”. The sociological review 56/2 (2008), 195-219.
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“İslam da Müslüman da Bir Irk Değildir”: İslamofobi, Irkçılık ve İfade Özgürlüğü

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 49, 595 - 625, 30.04.2023
https://doi.org/10.28949/bilimname.1228143

Öz

İslamofobi’nin bir ırkçılık biçimi olarak tanımlanmasına itirazlar var. İtirazlar, İslamofobi'nin iki ana teması etrafında şekilleniyor: "İslam" ve "Müslümanlar". Bazı muhalifler, ifade özgürlüğü kapsamında meşru sayılması gereken çeşitli tartışma ve eleştirilere karşı “İslam”ın korunmaması gerektiğini savunuyorlar. “Muhammed sübyancıdır ve dokuz yaşında bir kızla evlenmiştir”, “İslam kılıçla yayılmıştır”, “Örtünmek kadınları insanlıktan çıkarır, aşağılar, nesneleştirir” gibi ifadelerin ifade özgürlüğü kapsamında meşru görülmesi gereken teolojik tartışmalar bağlamında değerlendirilmesi gerektiği ileri sürülür. Dolayısıyla, bu eleştiri haklarının İslamofobi’nin bir ırkçılık biçimi olarak tanımlanmasıyla sınırlandırılmaması gerektiği vurgulanır. Diğerleri için, “Müslümanlar” ırksal bir azınlık olarak kabul edilemez çünkü Müslüman olmak, gönüllü olarak seçilen dini bir kimliktir. Bu yaklaşım, cinsiyet ve ırksal kimlikleri doğuştan veya istem dışı kimlik kategorileri olarak kabul ederken, Müslüman olmanın kişinin kendi iradesine bağlı olduğunu ve bu nedenle Müslümanların bu diğer kimlik kategorilerine göre çok daha az yasal korumaya ihtiyacı olduğunu veya olması gerektiğini varsayar. Bu makale, ırkçılık dışındaki tanımların, Müslümanların ve Müslüman olarak algılananların fenotipik ve kültürel farklılıklara atıfta bulunularak nasıl dışlandığını, tabi kılındığını ve sömürüldüğünü yakalamaya ve anlamaya yardımcı olan hayati bir konuyu gözden kaçıracağını savunuyor. Bu, Müslümanların ırksallaştırılması meselesidir. Bu makale şu soruları keşfetmeyi amaçlamaktadır: İfade özgürlüğünün yasal sınırı ne olmalıdır? İslamofobi’yi Müslümanlara ve İslam'a yönelik makul eleştirilerden ayırmak mümkün mü? Irkçılık gerçekten de ırkların gerçek varlığına mı bağlı? İslam ve Müslüman düşmanlığı bir ırkçılık olarak değerlendirilebilirse, bu nasıl bir ırkçılık olabilir? Spesifik nitelikleri nelerdir, nasıl çalışır? Müslümanlar nasıl ırksallaştırıldı? Bu soruları cevaplamak için, 2019 yılında Londra'da yaşları 18-35 arasında değişen otuz dokuz birinci ve ikinci nesil genç Türk'ün İslamofobi deneyimleri üzerine yapılan bir çalışmadan yararlanılmıştır. Londra'daki Türk toplumunda var olduğu bilinen çeşitliliği temsil edecek kadar farklı katılımcılar bulmayı amaçladım. Verilerin toplanma aracı olarak yarı yapılandırılmış derinlemesine görüşme yöntemini seçtim. Veri kümesindeki anlam kalıplarını belirlemek ve analiz etmek için tematik analiz kullandım. Britanya'daki genç Türklerin ırksallaştırılması süreci, Müslümanların sadece biyolojik veya fenotipik özelliklere göre değil, aynı zamanda etnik ve kültürel özelliklere göre de ırksallaştırıldığını göstermektedir. İdeolojileri ve dinleri eleştirme hakkına sahip olunmalıdır, ancak bireylerin kendilerini ifade etme tarzları ve adaba uygun hareket etmeleri hayati önem taşır. İfadeler kasıtlı olarak bir dini şeytanlaştırmamalı veya farklı bir grup insanı aşağılamamalı, değerini düşürmemeli veya damgalamamalıdır. Ayrıca Müslüman olmanın ırksal bir kimlik olmadığı iddiası, ırkın ırkçılığın ön koşulu olduğu fikrini yansıtır ve ırkçılığı dar bir anlayışa hapseder. Biyolojik ya da kültürel her ırkçılık özünde kültüreldir ve asıl hedefi bedenlere (bireylere) atfedilen kültürel, toplumsal ve dinsel farklılıklardır. Bu nedenle, Müslüman karşıtı ırkçılığın merkezinde dinin kendisinden ziyade algılanan dini mensubiyet yer almaktadır. Müslümanlar, fiziksel görünümleri, milliyetleri, etnik kökenleri veya ekonomik durumları ne olursa olsun, günlük yaşamlarında İslamofobik söylem ve uygulamalarla homojenleştirilmekte, aşağılanmakta ve ötekileştirilmektedir. Bu makale, İslamofobi’nin neden bir ırkçılık biçimi olarak değerlendirilmesi gerektiğinin daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkıda bulunmaktadır. İslam'a ve Müslümanlara yönelik söylem ve davranışlar değerlendirilirken, odağın günlük siyasi tartışmalardan, din düşmanlığından, din korkusundan, Müslümanlara yönelik nefret ve önyargıdan çok daha hayati bir konu olan Müslümanların ırksallaştırıldığı gerçeğine kaydırılması umulmaktadır.

Kaynakça

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  • AFSHAR, Haleh. “Can I see your hair? Choice, agency and attitudes: the dilemma of faith and feminism for Muslim women who cover”. Ethnic and racial studies 31/2 (2008), 411-427.
  • AHLUWALIA, Muninder K. - Pellettiere, Laura. “Sikh men post-9/11: Misidentification, discrimination, and coping.” Asian American Journal of Psychology 1/4 (2010), 303-314.
  • ALEXANDER, Claire. “Raceing Islamophobia”. Islamophobia: Still a challenge for us all. ed. Farah Elahi - Omar Khan. 13-15. Runnymede Trust, 2017. https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Islamophobia%20Report%202018%20FINAL.pdf.
  • All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims (APPGM). Islamophobia Defined. Report On The İnquiry İnto A Working Definition of Islamophobia/Anti-Muslim Hatred (2018). https://appgbritishmuslims.org/publications/
  • BALIBAR, Etienne. “Is There a ‘Neo-Racism’?” Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. London: Verso, 1991.
  • BANTON, Michael. Racial and ethnic competition. CUP Archive, 1983.
  • BARKER, Martin. The new racism: Conservatives and the ideology of the tribe. Junction Books, 1981.
  • BBC One. “The Big Questions: Nicky Campbell will be asking: Should Britain be ashamed of its deportation policies? And, will defining Islamophobia undermine free speech?”. 16 Feb 2020. https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m000fk1f/the-big-questions-series-13-episode-3.
  • BRAUN, Virginia – Victoria Clarke. “Using thematic analysis in psychology”. Qualitative research in psychology 3/2 (2006), 77-101.
  • BRODKIN, Karen. How Jews became white folks and what that says about race in America. NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998.
  • BUNZL, Matti. “Between anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Some thoughts on the new Europe”. American Ethnologist 32/4 (2005).
  • Christian Concern. “Open letter to Home Secretary rejects Islamophobia definition” (17 May 2019). https://christianconcern.com/ccpressreleases/open-letter-to-home-secretary-rejects-islamophobia-definition/
  • COHEN, Philip. “Gefährliche Erbschaften: Studien zur Entstehung einer multirassistischen Kultur in Großbritannien”. Die Schwierigkeit, nicht rassistisch zu sein. ed. Anita Kalpaka - Nora Räthzel. 81-144. Leer: Mundo, 1990.
  • DAWKINS, Richard vd. The Four Horsemen: The Discussion that Sparked an Atheist Revolution Foreword by Stephen Fry. Random House, 2019.
  • EVANS, Stephen. “Islam, like any other religion, must be fair game for criticism” (22 August 2019). https://www.secularism.org.uk/opinion/2019/08/islam-like-any-other-religion-must-be-fair-game-for-criticism.
  • FANON, Frantz. Black skin, white masks. New York: Grove Press, 1967.
  • FENTON, Steve. Ethnicity: Racism, class and culture. London: MacMillan Press, 1999. FOX, Jon E. “The uses of racism: whitewashing new Europeans in the UK”. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36/11 (2013), 1871-1889.
  • FOX, Jon E. - Mogilnicka, Magda. “Pathological integration, or, how East Europeans use racism to become British”. The British Journal of Sociology 70/1 (2019), 5-23.
  • FREDRICKSON, George M. Racism: A Short History. Princeton University Press: Princeton and Oxford, 2002.
  • FUKUYAMA, Francis. “The end of history?” The national interest 16 (1989), 3-18.
  • GARNER, Steve. “The uses of whiteness: What sociologists working on Europe can draw from US research on whiteness”. Sociology 40/2 (2006), 257-275.
  • GARNER, Steve - Selod, Saher. “The racialization of Muslims: Empirical studies of Islamophobia”. Critical Sociology 41/1 (2015), 9-19.
  • GILEWICZ, Magdalena. The construction of Muslim community and British Muslim identity in two British Muslim newspapers. University of Aberdeen, PhD Thesis, 2012.
  • GRAY, Anthony. “Racial vilification and freedom of speech in Australia and elsewhere”. Common Law World Review 41/2 (2012), 167-195.
  • GROSFOGUEL, Ramon - Mielants, Eric. “The long-duree entanglement between islamophobia and racism in the modern/colonial capitalist/patriarchal world-system”. Human Architecture: Journal of the sociology of self-knowledge 1/Fall (2006), 1-12.
  • HALLIDAY, Fred. “’Islamophobia’reconsidered”. Ethnic and Racial Studies 22/5 (1999), 892-902.
  • HUNTINGTON, Samuel P. “The clash of civilizations”. Foreign Affairs 72/3 (1993), 22-49.
  • HUNTINGTON, Samuel P. Who are we?: The challenges to America’s national identity. Simon and Schuster, 2004.
  • IGNATIEV, Noel. How the Irish became white. London: Harvard University, 1995.
  • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. “Article 19”. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx
  • ITV News. “Government rejects controversial definition of Islamophobia after warning from terror police” (15 May 2019). https://www.itv.com/news/2019-05-15/police-counter-terror-chief-joins-row-over-islamophobia-definition/
  • KUNST, Jonas R. vd. “Coping with Islamophobia: The effects of religious stigma on Muslim minorities’ identity formation”. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 36/4 (2012), 518-532.
  • LAJEVARDI, Nazita - Oskooii, Kassra AR. “Old-fashioned racism, contemporary islamophobia, and the isolation of Muslim Americans in the age of Trump”. Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 3/1 (2018), 112-152.
  • LEWIS, Bernard. Islam and the West, 1993.
  • MACMASTER, Neil. Racism in Europe, 1870-2000. New York: Palgrave, 2001. Barın, Nasar. Key concepts in race and ethnicity. Sage, 2014.
  • MEER, Nasar. “The politics of voluntary and involuntary identities: are Muslims in Britain an ethnic, racial or religious minority?” Patterns of prejudice 42/1 (2008), 61-81.
  • MEER, Nasar - Modood, Tariq. “For ‘Jewish’ read ‘Muslim’? Islamophobia as a form of racialisation of ethno-religious groups in Britain today”. Islamophobia Studies Journal 1/1 (2012), 34-53.
  • MEER, Nasar - Modood, Tariq. “Refutations of racism in the ‘Muslim question’”. Patterns of prejudice 43/3-4 (2009), 335-354.
  • MEER, Nasar - Noorani, Tehseen. “A sociological comparison of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in Britain”. The sociological review 56/2 (2008), 195-219.
  • MILES, Robert - Brown, Malcolm. Racism. London: Routledge, 2003.
  • MODOOD, Tariq. Multicultural politics: Racism, ethnicity, and Muslims in Britain. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005.
  • MODOOD, Tariq. Multiculturalism: a civic idea. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2. ed., 2013.
  • MODOOD, Tariq. “Islamophobia and normative sociology”. Journal of the British Academy 8 (2020), 29-49.
  • OMI, Howard - Winant, Howard. Racial formation in the United States: from the 1960s to the 1980s. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.
  • OPRATKO, Benjamin. “Islamophobia: The bigger picture”. Historical Materialism 25/1 (2017), 63-89.
  • POOLE, Elizabeth. Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. London: Tauris, 2002.
  • RAHMAN, MD Shafiqur. Transnational media reception, Islamophobia, and the identity constructions of a non-Arab Muslim diasporic community: The experiences of Bangladeshis in the United States since 9/11. Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2007.
  • RATTANSI, Ali. Racism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press, 2007.
  • RITCHIE, Jane vd. “Carrying out qualitative analysis”, Qualitative Research Practice, ed. Jane Ritchie vd. London: Sage, 2003, 219-262.
  • ROEDIGER, David R. The wages of whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. London: Verso, 2. ed, 2017.
  • Runnymede Trust. a Challenge for Us all: Report of The Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. London: Author, 1997.
  • Runnymede Trust. “Islamophobia: Still a challenge for us all”. ed. Farah Alahi - Omar Khan, 2017. https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Islamophobia%20Report%202018%20FINAL.pdf.
  • SAID, Edward. Orientalism Vintage Books. New York: Vintage Books, 1979.
  • SAYYID, Salman. “Racism and Islamophobia”. University of South Australia, 2011. Racism and Islamophobia (unisa.edu.au)
  • SEALY, Thomas. “Islamophobia: With or without Islam?” Religions 12/6 (2021), 369.
  • SELOD, Saher. “Gendered racialization: Muslim American men and women’s encounters with racialized surveillance”. Ethnic and Racial Studies 42/4 (2018), 552-569.
  • SIAN, Katy P. “Surveillance, Islamophobia, and Sikh bodies in the war on terror”. Islamophobia Studies Journal 4/1 (2017), 37-52.
  • STURGES, Paul. “Limits to freedom of expression? Considerations arising from the Danish cartoons affair”. IFLA journal 32/3 (2006), 181-188.
  • TAGUIEFF, Pierre-André. The force of prejudice: on racism and its doubles. U of Minnesota Press, 2001.
  • The Guardian. “Police chiefs in row over definition of Islamophobia” (15 May 2019). https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/may/15/police-chiefs-in-row-over-definition-of-islamophobia
  • TONYBEE, Polly. “My right to offend a fool” (10 Jan 2005). https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/jun/10/religion.politicalcolumnists
  • TORRANCE, David. General Debate on the definition of Islamophobia (14 May 2019). https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cdp-2019-0086/
  • WEBB, Emma. “We must not introduce new blasphemy law”. Spiked (26 July 2019). https://www.spiked-online.com/2019/08/26/we-must-not-introduce-new-blasphemy-laws/
  • WERBNER, Pnina. “Islamophobia: Incitement to religious hatred–legislating for a new fear?” Anthropology Today 21/1 (2005), 5-9.
  • WIEVIORKA, Michel. The arena of racism. London: Sage, 1995.
  • ZEMPI, Irene - Awan, Imran. “Doing ‘dangerous’ autoethnography on Islamophobic victimization”. Ethnography 18/3 (2017), 367-386.
Toplam 67 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Muhammed Babacan 0000-0002-8845-4677

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Nisan 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 2 Ocak 2023
Kabul Tarihi 18 Nisan 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Sayı: 49

Kaynak Göster

APA Babacan, M. (2023). “Neither ‘Islam’ nor ‘Muslim’ is a Race”: Islamophobia, Racism and Freedom of Expression. Bilimname(49), 595-625. https://doi.org/10.28949/bilimname.1228143